Liberalizing Kazakhstan’s Economy Must Not Become Uncontrolled Privatization, Expert Warns
Last week, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev signed a decree on reducing the state’s participation in the economy, aiming to help develop competition and private business. This could be a significant boost to the economy, financial analyst Rassul Rysmambetov, an Almaty-based expert in distressed assets and Director of the Financial Freedom Public Foundation, told The Times of Central Asia, though everything will depend on how the decree is ...
Uzbek Politician Decries Dominance of Russian Language in Country
Alisher Kadyrov, leader of the Milliy Tiklanish Party and Vice-Speaker of the Legislative Chamber of the Oliy Majlis of Uzbekistan, has proposed a ban on the provision of public services to persons who don't speak the Uzbek language. He expressed this opinion in response to a statement by the chairman...
Nationwide Survey on Domestic Violence in Kazakhstan Publishes Results
A large-scale statistical analysis on domestic violence in Kazakhstan was conducted by three professors from Karaganda Medical University: Saule Musabekova, Ksenia Mkhitaryan and Hamida Abdukadirova. The study, conducted between 2019 and 2022, covered 14,342 women between the ages of 18 and 75 from 14 regions of Kazakhstan. The questionnaire included...
Kyrgyz Writer Oljobai Shakir Sentenced to Five Years in Prison
On 14 May, the Alameda District Court of the Chui Oblast in Kyrgyzstan sentenced 52-year-old activist and writer Oljobai Shakir to five years imprisonment for inciting mass riots on social media against the government. At the previous hearing, Shakir a frequent and popular blogger, pleaded not guilty to the charges...
Large-Scale Cyberattacks on Kazakhstan Continue
Leaks of millions of citizens data, attacks by hackers, hourly calls from fraudsters - these are just some of the threats which have faced Kazakhstan over the past few months. Following the resignation – or dismissal depending on which source one believes - of the head of the Ministry of...
Kyrgyz Farmers Given Ultrasonic Sensors to Monitor Water Consumption
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is helping Kyrgyzstan to introduce a system of ultrasonic sensors for monitoring irrigation water consumption, the UN has announced. The main source of water for agriculture in Kyrgyzstan is melt water from mountain glaciers. But because of climate change this...
Kuandyk Bishimbayev Given 24 Years in Prison — But Kazakhs Ask How Long He Will Really Serve
On May 13, Kazakhstan’s former Minister of National Economy Kuandyk Bishimbayev was sentenced to 24 years in prison for the torture and murder of his common-law wife Saltanat Nukenova in November 2023. While the length of the sentence is a victory for advocates against gender-based violence, both within Kazakhstan and...
Kuandyk Bishimbayev Sentenced to 24 Years for the Murder of Saltanat Nukenova
Kuandyk Bishimbayev, a former Minister of National Economy of Kazakhstan under then-President Nursultan Nazarbayev, was sentenced on Monday to 24 years in prison in the specialized inter-district investigative court of Astana for torturing and murdering his common-law wife, Saltanat Nukenova, at the Gastrocenter Restaurant on November 9, 2023. The verdict...
Cleaning up the Samruk-Kazyna National Welfare Fund
In his efforts to transition Kazakhstan from previous president Nazarbayev’s era, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has centered his policy agenda on strengthening justice and eradicating kleptocracy in Kazakhstan. His presidential platform, known as “Just and Fair Kazakhstan,” remains a focal point in his addresses, which often emphasize dismantling systems that have...
First Kazakh Woman Reaches the Summit of Everest
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Kyrgyz Sugar Farmers Being Ruined By Imports
18 hours ago
Coca-Cola Opens New Production Plant in Uzbekistan
19 hours ago
Launch of Flights Between Almaty and Nukus
3 days ago
Uzbekistan Set to Increase Coal Production
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Turkmenistan’s Gas and Türkiye’s Plans to Become a Gas Hub
By Robert M. Cutler A series of ongoing political consultations between Turkmenistan and Türkiye continued on 25–26 April, as a Turkmen delegation led by Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs Ahmet Gurbanov visited Ankara, hosted by Turkish counterpart Burak Akçapar. Beyond the regular bilateral agenda of political-diplomatic, trade-economic and cultural-humanitarian...
Without Security, There Can Be No Development in Afghanistan
Indian author Arundhati Roy once said, “Either way, change will come. It could be bloody, or it could be beautiful. It depends on us.” Almost three years after Taliban’s resurgence to power in Afghanistan, there are practically no developments to highlight in its relations with the outside world. The situation...
Growth of Non-Custodial Sentences in the Kyrgyz Republic Since 2020
The Kyrgyz Republic has reported a decrease of its prison population, which speaks to the ongoing humanization of its criminal justice system. In 2023, the prison population amounted to just 7,728 persons, a 20% decrease compared to 2020 (9,658 prisoners). Despite a 22% increase in the number of convictions, from...
Uzbekistan Seeks to Expand Trade Horizons with Europe
- Opinion by Robert Cutler Uzbekistan's economic landscape has been evolving, with announcements of major reforms and international cooperation aimed at economic modernization and increasing its profile in global markets. Its partnership with the European Union (EU) has focused on critical raw materials. At the same time, Tashkent plans...
The Taliban and its Neighbors: An Outsider’s Perspective
This is part two of a piece of which part one was published here. The topic of a regional approach to solving Afghanistan's problems is increasingly being discussed in various expert and diplomatic circles. The International Crisis Group (ICG), a reputable think tank whose opinion is extremely interesting as part...
Uzbekistan: From Silk Roads to New Horizons
Cradled by the embrace of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya Rivers, Uzbekistan boasts a rich tapestry woven from the threads of history. Being home to trade hubs like Samarkand and Bukhara, this land has been at the center of cultural exchange for over a millennia. From the Turkic-Mongol tribes...
The New Silk Road
In light of the current geopolitical situation in the world, many countries are puzzled by the search for new alternative transport routes. One of these is the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route (TITR), which runs through China, Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and further to Turkey and European countries. New...
Taliban and its Neighbors: A Regional Format for Overcoming Challenges in Afghanistan and Beyond
The process of making Afghanistan an independent economic entity that can work constructively within globally accepted economic standards and formats will require addressing pressing security issues as well as strengthening regional partnerships and cooperation. In the long term, this will not only benefit the people of Afghanistan but also its...
How India is Becoming a Robust Soft Power in Central Asia
The middle-income trap, a pressing issue that has led to the stagnation of many successful developing economies, demands immediate attention. This trap, which occurs when a middle-income country can no longer compete internationally in standardized, labor-intensive goods due to relatively high wages, is a result of various factors, including countries...
The Priority of Maintaining a United and Stable Afghanistan
The issue of inter-ethnic relations in Afghanistan affects not only the country itself but also its surrounding region. Recent history has placed a heightened importance on the “nation” question in Afghanistan in terms of the country’s political and social stability. Since regaining power in 2021, the de facto Taliban authorities...
The Middle Corridor: How Kazakhstan is Carving its Niche in Europe-Asia Transport
In the aftermath of the pandemic and amid rising geopolitical tensions and sanctions – leading to the breakdown of traditional shipping and logistics chains – the need to develop new, alternative routes for trade has gained particular importance. One such route is the Middle Corridor, or Trans-Caspian International Transport Route,...
One Step Forward, Two Steps Back: the EU’s Indecisive Strategy Towards Eurasia
Times of Central Asia Editorial Marking the next chapter in the geopolitical re-balancing competition between Russia and the West, the European Parliament (EP) on 13 March passed a resolution on deepening ties between the EU and Armenia. The document puts forth the possibility of granting Armenia candidate status for EU...
Kazakhstan’s President Commends Growing Cooperation Between Central Asian States
On May 16, Kazakhstan's President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev hosted the first meeting in Astana of Security Council secretaries from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and the military attaché of the Embassy of Turkmenistan in Kazakhstan. In his opening address, Tokayev announced that the aim of the meeting was to provide an...
Kyrgyz Sugar Farmers Being Ruined By Imports
Favorable weather conditions will allow Kyrgyz farmers to harvest a large beet crop this year. However, this will not stop the flow of imported sugar, as local production capacity covers only 65% of domestic needs. Cheap sugar imported from Russia and Kazakhstan could bankrupt farms. The sugar beet harvest in...
Liberalizing Kazakhstan’s Economy Must Not Become Uncontrolled Privatization, Expert Warns
Last week, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev signed a decree on reducing the state’s participation in the economy, aiming to help develop competition and private business. This could be a significant boost to the economy, financial analyst Rassul Rysmambetov, an Almaty-based expert in distressed assets and Director of the Financial Freedom Public...
Turkmen Gas To Be Supplied To Turkey Via Azerbaijan And Georgia
An agreement has been reached on the transportation of natural gas from Turkmenistan to Turkey via Azerbaijan and Georgia. This deal was announced by Turkey's minister of energy and natural resources Alparslan Bayraktar. Chronicles of Turkmenistan report that Bayraktar met with Azerbaijani economy minister Mikail Jabbarov in Istanbul on May...
Kyrgyzstan To Receive Customs Duties In The Eurasian Economic Union in Russian Rubles
Kyrgyz MPs have ratified a bill that will allow customs duties between certain member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) to be paid in rubles. The new law allows funds to be transferred in rubles between Russia, Belarus and Kyrgyzstan, at the exchange rate of the national banks of...
Tajikistan To Reconnect To Central Asia’s Unified Energy System
Tajikistan will soon connect itself to Central Asia's unified energy system. The unified system for energy distribution was created in 1960, when the systems of Uzbekistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, northern Tajikistan and southern Kazakhstan's Shymkent junction were connected to work in parallel through 110- and 220-kV power lines. This system operated...
IFC to Support Central Asian Tech Startups With New Fund
The International Finance Corporation (IFC) is allocating $5 million to a new fund that will be used to support technology startups in Central Asia, Gazeta.uz reports. IFC is reportedly investing in Sturgeon Emerging Opportunities, a new venture capital fund managed by Sturgeon Capital, a major venture capital investor in emerging...
EU’s Central Asia Representative Reaffirms the Union’s Commitment to the Region
Teri Hakala, Special Representative of the European Union for Central Asia, has recently spoken about the EU's goals for its presence in the Central Asian region, and plans for the coming years. Speaking at the conference, "Turkmenistan and the EU: 30 years of cooperation", Ms Hakala said: "The EU has...
Uzbek Politician Decries Dominance of Russian Language in Country
Alisher Kadyrov, leader of the Milliy Tiklanish Party and Vice-Speaker of the Legislative Chamber of the Oliy Majlis of Uzbekistan, has proposed a ban on the provision of public services to persons who don't speak the Uzbek language. He expressed this opinion in response to a statement by the chairman...
Kyrgyz Sugar Farmers Being Ruined By Imports
Favorable weather conditions will allow Kyrgyz farmers to harvest a large beet crop this year. However, this will not stop the flow of imported sugar, as local production capacity covers only 65% of domestic needs. Cheap sugar imported from Russia and Kazakhstan could bankrupt farms. The sugar beet harvest in...
Liberalizing Kazakhstan’s Economy Must Not Become Uncontrolled Privatization, Expert Warns
Last week, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev signed a decree on reducing the state’s participation in the economy, aiming to help develop competition and private business. This could be a significant boost to the economy, financial analyst Rassul Rysmambetov, an Almaty-based expert in distressed assets and Director of the Financial Freedom Public...
Tajikistan To Reconnect To Central Asia’s Unified Energy System
Tajikistan will soon connect itself to Central Asia's unified energy system. The unified system for energy distribution was created in 1960, when the systems of Uzbekistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, northern Tajikistan and southern Kazakhstan's Shymkent junction were connected to work in parallel through 110- and 220-kV power lines. This system operated...
Large-Scale Cyberattacks on Kazakhstan Continue
Leaks of millions of citizens data, attacks by hackers, hourly calls from fraudsters - these are just some of the threats which have faced Kazakhstan over the past few months. Following the resignation – or dismissal depending on which source one believes - of the head of the Ministry of...
Kazakhstan Launches Battle against Counterfeit Medicines
From 1 July 1, 2024, in an effort to rid the country of counterfeit drugs flooding the local market, labeling of all medicines in Kazakhstan will become mandatory. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), every tenth package of medicines distributed in developing countries is counterfeit, and in Kazakhstan, exceeds...
U.S. Authorities Asked to Sanction Violators of Religious Freedoms in Tajikistan
In early May, the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) published its annual report on violations of religious freedom around the world. As a result of the report, the Commission called on the U.S. government to impose targeted sanctions against government agencies and officials in Tajikistan responsible for serious...
A Steep Rise in Popularity of Women-Only Carriages on Kazakhstan’s Trains
Since the beginning of this year, some 70 thousand women in Kazakhstan have opted to travel by train in carriages designated as "women's cars". According to data provided by the national carrier "Kazakhstan Temir Zholy" (KTZ), this is a steep rise from the 34,000 who used the same carriages in...
Uzbek Politician Decries Dominance of Russian Language in Country
Alisher Kadyrov, leader of the Milliy Tiklanish Party and Vice-Speaker of the Legislative Chamber of the Oliy Majlis of Uzbekistan, has proposed a ban on the provision of public services to persons who don't speak the Uzbek language. He expressed this opinion in response to a statement by the chairman...
Kazakhstan’s President Commends Growing Cooperation Between Central Asian States
On May 16, Kazakhstan's President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev hosted the first meeting in Astana of Security Council secretaries from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and the military attaché of the Embassy of Turkmenistan in Kazakhstan. In his opening address, Tokayev announced that the aim of the meeting was to provide an...
New Program Lets Kyrgyz Students Study For Diplomas in Germany
Kyrgyz students can now study at vocational schools in Germany, under a new project between the country's ministry of education and a German company, FAV Service gGmbH. As 24.kg reports, referencing the agency's press service, the partnership has been created to train Kyrgyz professionals to work in both countries. Applicants...
Kazakhstan Still Repatriating Its Citizens From War Zones
Kazakhstan is still repatriating its citizens from war zones, 24KZ reports. Since 2019, more than 750 Kazakhs have been successfully repatriated to the republic as part of a humanitarian operation. Similar efforts are underway in other Central Asian countries. For example, Uzbek authorities have evacuated more than 500 citizens from...
Turkmen Gas To Be Supplied To Turkey Via Azerbaijan And Georgia
An agreement has been reached on the transportation of natural gas from Turkmenistan to Turkey via Azerbaijan and Georgia. This deal was announced by Turkey's minister of energy and natural resources Alparslan Bayraktar. Chronicles of Turkmenistan report that Bayraktar met with Azerbaijani economy minister Mikail Jabbarov in Istanbul on May...
Kyrgyzstan To Receive Customs Duties In The Eurasian Economic Union in Russian Rubles
Kyrgyz MPs have ratified a bill that will allow customs duties between certain member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) to be paid in rubles. The new law allows funds to be transferred in rubles between Russia, Belarus and Kyrgyzstan, at the exchange rate of the national banks of...
Kazakhstan Becomes First CIS country to Join ICAO Program on Environmentally-Friendly Aviation Fuel
Kazakhstan has become the first CIS nation to sign an agreement with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and join the program in the field of environmentally-friendly aviation fuel (ACT-SAF). "ICAO has set a goal of achieving net zero emissions from international flights by 2050. To achieve this goal, during...
Tajikistan To Reconnect To Central Asia’s Unified Energy System
Tajikistan will soon connect itself to Central Asia's unified energy system. The unified system for energy distribution was created in 1960, when the systems of Uzbekistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, northern Tajikistan and southern Kazakhstan's Shymkent junction were connected to work in parallel through 110- and 220-kV power lines. This system operated...
First Kazakh Woman Reaches the Summit of Everest
Anar Burasheva, the first woman from Kazakhstan to climb Mount Everest, did a little dance on her descent. “My heart is on this mountain,” Burasheva said on Instagram after reaching the peak. She and two other Kazakh climbers, along with a support team of four Sherpas, made it to the...
Nationwide Survey on Domestic Violence in Kazakhstan Publishes Results
A large-scale statistical analysis on domestic violence in Kazakhstan was conducted by three professors from Karaganda Medical University: Saule Musabekova, Ksenia Mkhitaryan and Hamida Abdukadirova. The study, conducted between 2019 and 2022, covered 14,342 women between the ages of 18 and 75 from 14 regions of Kazakhstan. The questionnaire included...
Kyrgyz Writer Oljobai Shakir Sentenced to Five Years in Prison
On 14 May, the Alameda District Court of the Chui Oblast in Kyrgyzstan sentenced 52-year-old activist and writer Oljobai Shakir to five years imprisonment for inciting mass riots on social media against the government. At the previous hearing, Shakir a frequent and popular blogger, pleaded not guilty to the charges...
Uzbekistan Ranked Fifth for Number of Students Studying Abroad
According to Statista, based on UNESCO data, Uzbekistan ranked fifth globally in terms of the number of students studying abroad in 2021. Chinese and Indian students top the list. The number of Chinese students studying abroad was one million, and Indian students, 508,000. Vietnam, Germany and Uzbekistan are next on...
Learning English: A Growing Trend in Kazakhstan
In 2023, the international company Education First conducted a survey to assess the level of English language proficiency in 113 countries. Ranked 104th, proficiency in Kazakhstan was deemed startlingly low. This year however, the situation is set to change with a growing trend to embrace the English language. What are...
Healing Properties of Uzbekistan’s Chashma Spring Draw Curious Tourists
It’s Sunday morning, and a nice breeze is blowing. Due to favorable weather, many people are paying a visit to the Chashma complex in Nurota, in the Navoi region of Uzbekistan. The complex is one of the most visited holy places by Central Asian Muslims, and thousands of tourists from...
Case Documents for 11 Temirov Live Journalists Submitted to Court in Kyrgyzstan
Legal documents regarding the cases of eleven current and former journalists of the Temirov Live project, who are accused of calling for mass riots, have been handed over to the court. According to the Pervomaisky District Court of Bishkek, the criminal case was received by the court office and will...
Kazakh Pensioner Takes A Trip To Paris — On His Bicycle
Sixty-four year-old Rabbim Borashev, from the town of Beineu in western Kazakhstan's Mangystau region, has set out to cycle to the Olympic Games in Paris, which begin at the end of July. He plans to cover 5,000 kilometers on his bike, reports Lada.kz. "You could say that traveling to the...
Kazakhstan Still Repatriating Its Citizens From War Zones
Kazakhstan is still repatriating its citizens from war zones, 24KZ reports. Since 2019, more than 750 Kazakhs have been successfully repatriated to the republic as part of a humanitarian operation. Similar efforts are underway in other Central Asian countries. For example, Uzbek authorities have evacuated more than 500 citizens from...
Nationwide Survey on Domestic Violence in Kazakhstan Publishes Results
A large-scale statistical analysis on domestic violence in Kazakhstan was conducted by three professors from Karaganda Medical University: Saule Musabekova, Ksenia Mkhitaryan and Hamida Abdukadirova. The study, conducted between 2019 and 2022, covered 14,342 women between the ages of 18 and 75 from 14 regions of Kazakhstan. The questionnaire included...
Kyrgyz Writer Oljobai Shakir Sentenced to Five Years in Prison
On 14 May, the Alameda District Court of the Chui Oblast in Kyrgyzstan sentenced 52-year-old activist and writer Oljobai Shakir to five years imprisonment for inciting mass riots on social media against the government. At the previous hearing, Shakir a frequent and popular blogger, pleaded not guilty to the charges...
Kuandyk Bishimbayev Given 24 Years in Prison — But Kazakhs Ask How Long He Will Really Serve
On May 13, Kazakhstan’s former Minister of National Economy Kuandyk Bishimbayev was sentenced to 24 years in prison for the torture and murder of his common-law wife Saltanat Nukenova in November 2023. While the length of the sentence is a victory for advocates against gender-based violence, both within Kazakhstan and...
Prosecutor General’s Office of Tajikistan and U.S. State Department Sign Memorandum of Cooperation
Tajikistan and the U.S. have agreed to continue bilateral legal cooperation in various areas, as reported by the General Prosecutor's Office of the Republic of Tajikistan. During the meeting, Prosecutor General of Tajikistan, Rahmon Yusuf Ahmadzoda and the U.S. Ambassador to the Tajikistan, Manuel Mikaller discussed issues related to the...
Kuandyk Bishimbayev Sentenced to 24 Years for the Murder of Saltanat Nukenova
Kuandyk Bishimbayev, a former Minister of National Economy of Kazakhstan under then-President Nursultan Nazarbayev, was sentenced on Monday to 24 years in prison in the specialized inter-district investigative court of Astana for torturing and murdering his common-law wife, Saltanat Nukenova, at the Gastrocenter Restaurant on November 9, 2023. The verdict...
Dushanbe Conference to Discuss New Mass Media Law
On May 14, Dushanbe will host a conference entitled "Favorable Media Environment - an Important Factor of Legal Education in Society." The meeting is being organized by the Tajik Parliament and the nonprofit organization, Homa, with the support of the European Union (EU). The purpose of the discussion is to...
Uzbek Businesswoman Diora Usmanova Recounts Own History of Marital Violence
Diora Usmanova, the owner of two restaurants and some clothing brands in Uzbekistan, has spoken on her Instagram page about the beatings she suffered from her first husband, Babur Usmanov, who was the nephew of the billionaire Alisher Usmanov. Usmanova herself is related to Ziroatkhon Mirziyoyeva, the wife of Uzbek...
EU to Allocate €600,000 to Uzbekistan for Green Budgeting
An agreement on financing a new project in support of green development in Uzbekistan was signed on May 6 by representatives of the French Development Agency (AFD), the European Union, and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). According to the UNDP's press service, the project aims to assist the Uzbek...
“This Disaster Has Shown We Are All United”: An Interview with Zakirzhan Kharisovich, Deputy of Petropavlovsk, about the Kazakh Floods
This spring Kazakhstan struggled to contain flooding that displaced upwards of 120,000 people -- described by president Kasym-Jomart Tokayev as the country’s ‘worst natural disaster in 80 years’. With the flooding now contained, and excess water being repurposed, The Times of Central Asia spoke to Zakirzhan Kharisovich, a deputy of...
Favorable Water Volumes Forecast for Uzbekistan’s Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers
According to the news agency UzA, Uzbekistan's Minister of Water Management Shavkat Hamroyev told a parliamentary hearing that watersheds from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers are forecast as favorable this year. The announcement was made in response to Muqaddas Tirkasheva, a member of the lower house of parliament,...
ADB Allocates $56 Million for Sewage Treatment Plant to Protect Issyk-Kul
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has agreed to allocate money for the construction of a sewage treatment plant in Cholpon-Ata, Kyrgyzstan's main resort city on the northern shore of the high-mountain Lake Issyk-Kul, which is the crown jewel of the Kyrgyz tourism industry. . According to the State Agency of...
Military in Kazakhstan Head Back to Bases After Working to Contain Floods
Kazakh military units that deployed to help with flood control measures in the past weeks are returning to their barracks as the crisis that hit large parts of the country winds down. “Due to the stabilization of the situation and the drop in water levels, some of the personnel and...
Kazakhstan Repurposing Floodwater
In a strategic response to the unprecedented spring flooding this year, Kazakhstan is channeling its efforts towards harnessing the disastrous floods to its advantage. The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation in Kazakhstan has embarked on a program to utilize the massive floodwaters for future irrigation and environmental sustainability. In...
Mudslides in Kyrgyzstan Flood Over 200 Homes
Kyrgyzstan's emergencies ministry has formed an operational headquarters to deal with recent flooding in the south of the country. Rescuers report that hundreds of local residents have been evacuated to safety. Flooding due to heavy rains began last week in Kyrgyzstan's southern Osh region, prompting the region to declare a...
U.S. Government Discusses Data From Air Quality Monitor at Tashkent Embassy
On April 22, a press conference was held at the U.S. Embassy in Uzbekistan with American air quality specialist and researcher Jay Turner speaking to media representatives about the air quality monitoring device installed at the embassy in Tashkent in 2018. According to Turner, the device monitors the concentration of...
